1001-Ideas-That-Changed-the-Way-We-Think [Robert Arp] (fb2) читать постранично, страница - 4

Chinese proverb

Until the development of sharp projectiles, humans had to rely on blunt weapons, such as rocks, throwing sticks, and their hands and teeth. Sharp projectiles were far superior to blunt weapons as they were not only deadlier, but also could be used from a greater distance. This allowed people to hunt larger, more dangerous game while retaining some measure of security. Sharp projectiles spurred technological development, leading inventors to develop new methods of shaping stones, developing woodworking techniques, and, eventually, mining and casting metals. As further evidence of their importance, groups of wild chimpanzees in Senegal have recently been observed to fashion their own sharpened projectiles from tree branches for use in hunting. The frequency of projectile use was found to be higher among female chimpanzees, leading researchers to speculate that females may have played a key role in the evolution of tool technology among early humans.

Ever since the appearance of sharpened projectiles, human cultures have refined, perfected, and revered them for their simplicity and deadly efficiency. As the primary tools of warfare and survival, they were not replaced until relatively recently in human history when firearms became effective and widely available. MT

c. 250,000 BCE

Levallois Technique

Neanderthals

Neanderthal craftsmen develop a technique for making better flint tools

A flint tool shaped using the Levallois technique, discovered in Montreres, France. The core of a Levallois flake is often described as looking like the shell of a tortoise.

Dating back around 250,000 years, the Levallois technique is the name given to a method of knapping flint that was developed by Neanderthals and other proto-humans. The name derives from the Levallois-Perret suburb of Paris, France, where tools forged by this technique were discovered during archaeological digs in the nineteenth century.

“In terms of cutting tools (whether as knives or projectile points), the Levallois technique produced superior pieces.”

Brian Patrick Kooyman, professor of archaeology

The Levallois technique is a more refined version of earlier forms of stone knapping, which involved chipping pieces away from a prepared stone core. It enabled the tool’s creator to have much greater control over the shape and size of the final flake. The technique begins with selecting a pebble about the size of a hand. A striking platform is then formed at one end of the stone, and the edges are trimmed by chipping off pieces around the outline of the intended flake. The base of the stone is then struck in order to produce its distinctive dorsal ridge. When the striking platform is struck, the flake releases from the stone with a characteristic plano-convex configuration and all of its edges sharpened by the earlier chipping. The flake is then ready to use as a knife or as the point of an edged projectile weapon.

Populations distributed over a vast geographical region, from Africa to Northern Europe, employed the Levallois technique. It allowed the Neanderthals to perfect their spear-making industry, which in turn aided in the hunting of large animals. Being able to kill larger animals, and therefore feed more individuals while spending less time hunting, aided in the formation of stable people groups, enabling greater sedentism. It also allowed for the production of projectile points for early bow and arrow technology. The fact that the Levallois technique was refined and perfected by the Neanderthals gives the lie to the popular conception of them as crude and apelike brutes. APT

c. 150,000 BCE

Trade

Unknown

Exchanging goods, services, and other items of value

The first exchange of goods or services came about long before written history. There is evidence that long-distance commerce existed as far back as 150,000 years ago, and by the time that humanity emerged from the Neolithic period (10,000–2000 BCE) and began establishing cities and agrarian communities, trading had been firmly established as a vital part of life. The move toward a sedentry, agricultural lifestyle transformed the nature of human society, creating a surplus of food that allowed humans to evolve new occupations such as toolmaking and weaving. These craftspeople in turn created a surplus of their products, which they were then able to trade back for food. Villages began to specialize in making products that were in demand in other areas, and by 3,000 BCE ancient Mesopotamians had established trade routes with the urban centers of the Indus Valley Civilization, perhaps linking disparate urban areas for the first time.

“Every man thus lives by exchanging, or becomes in some measure a merchant …”

Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1776)

Trade is an engine that drives economies, facilitates social interactions, spurs political change, and leads to the spread of ideas, languages, goods, cultures, religions, wealth, people, and diseases. Through trading, humans acquired goods from far off lands, shared news of events, and pushed themselves to seek out corners of the world unknown to them in search of new opportunities. Trade has both stabilized relationships between potential enemies and led to conflicts, wars, and the subjugation, murder, and enslavement of millions. Over the course of history, empires have arisen, fallen, and been reborn as basic human desires have driven the need for trade. MT

c. 135,000 BCE

Jewelry

Paleolithic Middle East

Personal adornment, often made from precious or valuable materials

Jewelry found at a burial site at the Balzi Rossi Caves in Liguria, Italy, which dates back 25,000 years.

The earliest known jewelry comes from the Paleolithic Middle East, where people used sea snail shells to make beads as early as 135,000 years ago. Jewelry is not an art form confined to Homo sapiens, however, because evidence exists to show that Homo neanderthalensis created and used jewelry in Spain at least 50,000 years ago. It is believed that these early forms of jewelry were most probably worn as a form of protection from evil or as a mark of status or rank.

Over the millennia, humans have fashioned jewelry from bone, stone, wood, shells, feathers, teeth, and other natural materials, with metallic jewelry first appearing around 5000 BCE. By about 3000 BCE the ancient Egyptians had begun crafting gold and silver jewelry, sometimes incorporating glass and precious gems into their designs. The Egyptians believed that every gemstone carried certain mystical powers, which would be transferred to the owner when worn as jewelry. This association of jewelry with the spiritual and mystical extended to burying jewelry with the dead to take with them to the afterlife—a practice that was a common feature of many ancient cultures. Much of the ancient jewelry that is held in archaeological collections today was discovered in tombs.

“Rich and rare were the gems she wore, And a bright gold ring on her hand she bore …”

Thomas Moore, “Rich and Rare …” (1808)

The development of jewelry provided humankind with both a new form of beautification and another method of communication. It is an art that lets the wearer feel more attractive, powerful, or important, while at the same time conveying a symbolic message that here is a person of wealth, piety, or influence, or even one who is available—or unavailable—for romance. MT

c. 40,000 BCE

Shamanism

Unknown

A magico-religious tradition built around a practitioner who contacts the spirits

A wooden figure representing a shaman associated with the Inuit spirit Taqhisim. The shaman relied on the spirits with whom he was associated for help in his duties.

Shamanism is the general magico-religious tradition built around the figure of the shaman, and is a phenomenon both ancient (dating back to at least 40,000 BCE) and global. Most of the oldest art in the world—“The Sorcerer” cave painting in France, for example—is shamanistic, and most of the oldest texts in the world—Mesopotamian and biblical texts, for example—allude to shamanistic practices such as necromancy (contacting the spirits of the dead). The word “shaman” is derived from the Tungus word saman, which refers to a